Vikas Singh

Research Scholar, Department of Sociology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow

Abstract

            Globalization, in its modern day avtar, is a very complex and multi-dimensional process/phenomenon. But at the core of it, is a process of international economic integration, which also has a very comprehensive and far-reaching socio-cultural and political dimensions. In fact modern form of globalization is the most decisive and defining phenomenon of contemporary world.

Keywords: Neo-liberalism, Internationalism, Hybridization, High modernity, glocalisation.

Introduction:

As a new term ‘Globalization’ was initially used by a limited number of academies to denote an economic process / phenomenon. It gained widespread acceptance in the 1990s, and has since become a household Phrase. Numerous languages have included it into their lexicon, and academic disciplines from a range of backgrounds have made it the focal point of their research and publication activities.

As a process, Globalization is mostly attributed to the Expansion, and acceleration of worldwide relations. Revolutionary growth in Information and Communication technology (ICT) and means of rapid mass transportation in the last few decades has not only facilitated the process of interaction among the nation and communities, but also intensified it in an unprecedented way, hitherto unknown to mankind. This phenomenon/process has mainly increased the movement of various commodities and services, capital and people within and amongst the nations, which is unprecedented in its extent and quantity. (Singh, 2017)

Defining Globalization –

Despite now having been coined until the latter part of the 20th century, the term Globalization has a longer history. The world “globe” which derives from the latin word ‘Globus’ extended to the English language in the 14th century and in the beginning came to refer to a spherical depiction of the earth. The adjective ‘Global’ first appeared in the late 17th century and came to denote ‘planetary scale’ in the late 19th century, in addition to its former meaning ‘spherical’ the verb ‘Globalize’ together with the phrase ‘Globalism’ appeared in 1940s (Roser and Davis, 1944). The word ‘globalization’ as a process was originally used in English language in 1959 and became part of the English dictionary in 1961 (Webster 1961). The idea of ‘Globality’ as a condition started circulating in the 1980s (Robertson 1983).

The concept of global emerged nearly concurrently and independently in a number of academic domains in the early 1980s as a purposefully designed analytical tool. Roland Robertson, for instance, started to interpret ‘Globality’ in sociology in 1983(Robertson 1983).

Theodore Levitt discussed the ‘Globalization of markets’ concurrently in business studies (Levitt 1983.) In these years some researchers in international relations shifted their focus to study a new emerging phenomena / process of ‘Global Interdependence. Later in 1980s economists, geographers and others began to adopt the idea.

Since the 1990s, globalization has become a significant academic focal point, now it is being explored across the academic disciplines, geographical regions, theoretical perspective and political ideologies. However the concepts of globalization often remain as ubiquitous as they are illusive. According to Giddens, “These are few terms that we use so frequently but which are in fact as poorly conceptualized as globalization” (Giddins, 1986)

Scholte (2005) argues that globalization as a concept should represent a distinct Idea rather than being conflated with existing prevalent terms such as internationalization, liberalization, universalisation or westernization.

Internationalization–

Scholte points out that this term refers to the increasing interdependencies across the nations. Scholte argues that such interactions are not new and they do not require a new term / concept like globalization to describe them.

Liberalization–

This process refers to the reduction or removal of restriction on the flow / movement of the resources and people among the countries. Liberalization is often associated with neo liberal economic policies. Scholte acknowledges that liberalization has to a vast extent facilitated globalization but he maintains that two-globalization and liberalization – are not the same phenomenon. Globalization, in Scholte view, can exist independently of neo liberal practices and could manifest in various forms beyond the scope of liberalization. Globalization can and could take different forms including non neo liberal ones.

Universalization–

Scholte distinguishes globalization from universalisation. As a process, universalisation refers to spreading objects, experience and things to every part of the world. This suggests a uniformity that the process of globalization does not necessarily entaisl. In contrast, globalization can involve diverse processes, interaction and exchanges that do not lead to absolute uniformity or homogeneity across the globe.

Westernization–

Scholte argues that globalization is much more than westernization. Westernization is a particular type of universalization of Western structures such as individualism, rationalism, capitalism and democracy. Scholte maintains that their structures are the part of globalization but not in the same form. Globalization as a process can be non-Western and emancipatory.

According to Scholte, globalization is a process of deterritorialization or supraterritorialism, here deterritorialization implies reduction in the significance of territorial boundaries whereas Supraterritorialism refers to a state where traditional geo-political territories are still important but structures of globalization transcend conventional geopolitical borders.

Scholte argues that transplanetary relation of today are more complex than in the past, involving a large number of people more frequently and they are broader, deeper and more voluminous in contrast, Supraterritorial relations have emerged more recently and represent not only an increase in global connections but also new forms of global connectivity. This rise in cross-border connections also signifies the weakening of those boundaries. these connections go beyond geographic limits and include phenomenon such as global simultaneity (eg.- people worldwide engaging in the similar activity like drinking the same coffee brand) and instantaneity ( eg.- using mobile phones to have real time connection with people far away).

Scholte identifies examples of Supraterritorialism like jet travel, telecommunications, global media, finance, environmental issues and global awareness and concern about human rights and sports. These examples involve more than just spreeding up interactions across distances. They represent social relationships that extend beyond physical space. Scholte distinguishes this from the concept of time-space compression where distance is merely traversed faster through modern means of communication or travel.

For Scholte, supraterritoriality is a qualitative concept which involves not only the intensification of existing relationships but also the formation of entirely new types of social connections and relationships. According to Scholte, While territorial boundaries still hold significances, they do not encompass the entire framework of supraterritorialism. Scholte provides various examples of Supraterritorialism such as communication methods (including mail, books, telegraph phone fare, texting, internet, newspaper, radio TV and film) the movement of people, (example tourist migrants refugees and travelers and business) production processes (such as those taking place in multiple location global sourcing and global trade) consumption, global finance, global organizations (such as multinational corporations, religious faith based organizations, unions, NGOs, and charities), Military globalization (globally reaching weapons and war conducted from global locations), ecological impacts (both cause and effect) health (such as disease spreading worldwide) law (like international laws) and global awareness (eg. Sports).

Giddens (1990) defines globalisation as a process of intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa. This is a dialectical process because such local happenings may move in one observed direction from very distanciated relations that shape them. local transformations is as much a part of globalisation as the lateral extension of social connections across time and space.

Waters (2001) regards globalisation as a social process in which the constraints of geography on economic, political, social and cultural arrangements recedes and people become increasingly aware of this and act accordingly. Waters sees globalization as a process rather than an end and he emphasies culture and consciousness and the effect it has on action. According to Robertson (1992) globalisation as a concept refers both to the compression of the world and intensification of the consciousness of world as a whole…… both concrete global interdependence and consciousness of the global whole.

Here Robertson has discussed the compression of space with the advancement of technology. distances is that once seemed vast are and now reduced in terms of communication and travel speed. informations and communication technology has made it possible to access media from across the globe and converse with someone for away as if they were in the next room.

Harvey (1991) has referred to this phenomena as ‘annihilation of space’ where spatial distances become insignificant due to ability to communicate travel and see across them quickly and completely.

Robertson’s focus on global consciousness highlights that awareness of globalisation can be seen as significant as its actual existence.

Holton(2005) regards globalisation as a process and define it as:

• Interconnection- the intensified movements of goods, money, technology, information, people, ideas and cultural practices across political and cultural boundaries.
• The interdependence of these activities across boundaries and convergence and integration for instance in prices and markets Globalization must be more than movement that is episodic or involves few people (eg. as in early trade or has few consequences for those not involved in it.)
• Involving consciousness and identification of the world as a single place for instance as in Cosmopolitan cultures, religions and environmentalism.
• Emphasizing agency and process in globalisation as opposed to being as external or fixed structure.

Historical evolution of the Phenomenon /Process

The origin/evolution of globalization as a phenomenon/process is very complex to explain. Social theorists like Giddens, Robertson and Held have developed great insight in historically contextualizing globalization.

For Giddens (1990) globalization is to the development of modern societies. it is a consequence of modernity that is inherently globalizing in nature. For Giddens globalization is a continuation of modernity rather than a break with it. Giddens has used the term ‘high modernity’ to denote the contemporary period by which he infers that modernity has now moved into a global stage: Society has become ‘world society’ and individuals are confronted by social organizations and institutions that have become global in nature and scope.

Giddens has identified three factors in 19th century, which in his opinion, has given birth to contemporary form of globalisation:

• 19th century European nationals deployment of force to triumph tribal societies, colonizing them and then establishing colonial communities there.
• The relative peace of 19th century allowed the British in particular to invest resources in advancing colonial interest.
• The bureaucratic skills of European nation allowed them to develop diplomatic relations and transnational political and business networks.

Although European countries have often engaged in conflict with each-other, they more frequently worked together. As a consequence nation state continue to be central to modern globalization and international relation networks. Giddens argues that capitalism (with its inherent? characteristics of aggressive competition for raw materials, production and constant search for new market spaces.) has fuelled the pre existing globalizing instinct. Giddens thinks idealistically that in future globalization will result in a Post- scarcity economy which will ensure multi level political participation, demilitarization of nation states and societies and tools of Science and technology will be used to benefit humanity in general.

Roland Robertson- In contrast to Giddens Robertson (1992) suggests that contemporary globalization predates modernity and the rise of capitalism, marking a qualitative shift from earlier forms of globalization, modernisation has accelerated the process of globalization which has now permeated contemporary consciousness of the masses. While the most social thinkers view globalisation as a phenomenon that has compressed the social space from 16th century onward. Robertson identifies globalisations earlier roots in Europe, delineating five distinct phases—-

Phases-

Phase-1 from 1400 to 1750 , Initial stage of globalization involved the spread of Global exploration, the Roman Catholic Church, the widespead use of Gregarian Calender, advances in modern oceanography and mapping and growth and consolidation of nation-states.

Phase-2 from 1750 to 1875, This phase of globalization is characterized by the emergence and development of internationalism in the form of international relations, in this process exhibitions and other events allowed non-European national to start participating in Europas centered and dominated international community.

Phase 3 from 1875 to 1925, this face has seen increased globalizing tendencies due to advancement in communication technology and increasing economic, political, cultural and sports links. The first world war was the reflection of these fast globalizing tendencies.

Phase 4 from 1925 to 1969, this phase is characterized by the struggle for dominance involving major events like World war II invention and use of atomic weapons of mass destruction and establishment of organizations like UNO and other bodies with a global remit.

Phase 5 from 1969 to date, this phase of globalisation has witnessed the end of cold war, the emergence of information and communication technology, establishment of multiple multilateral/ global institutions etc.

Robertson argues that we may have already entered a sixth phase of globalisation characterised by uncertainty due to various factor like AIDS, new diseases, re-emergence of old diseases, environmental crisis, ethnic hatreds, the influence of global media, multiculturalism and the rise of Islamic fundamentalism. While the long term outcomes of globalization are uncertain. Robertson believed its uniqueness lies in the shift from a self-contained world to a one where Nations engage in diverse economic, cultural, political and military interactions leading people to think and act globally.

According to Held et al. (‘Global Transformations’ (1999), cultural globalisation is the latest stage in a long series of historical process. Some of the manifestation of these process include:

• The migration of people throughout the prehistory and history.
• The spread of major world religions.
• The rise and fall of great Empires
• The emergence of powerful Western nation-states and modern nationalism particularly the outward expansion of Europe from 16 century onwards.
• The global spread of capitalism and ideas like science, socialism, liberalism and feminism.
• Dominance of English language as a truly global language.
• Technological developments like Trans Atlantic telegraph in 1860s and cabled communication across British Empire by the 1880s

Held (et.al. 1999) has categorised the journey of globalisation into four periods, each reflecting a particular arrangement of social, cultural and political order. These periods are the pre modern, the early modern, the modern and The contemporary.

The Pre modern – (Before 1500) globalisation was limited to Eurasia and America and it was driven by empires and movement of people into new lands.

The Early Modern (1500-1850) This time period was marked by the rise of Western dominance with Europeans expanding into America and Oceania. It was in this period that the word religions, mainly Christianity and Judaism spread and exerted their most significant cultural influence by attaining global presence.

Modern Globalization (1850 – 1945) this period saw a significant increase in global networks and cultural flows. Primarily led by European powers especially Britain. Many Europeans migrated to new word, spreading their people’s ideas and religions throughout the word with rapid advancement in transportation and communication technology like telegraph telephone railway air travels and shipping has greatly improved the long distance connections during this time period.

Contemporary Globalization (1945 to date) there is widespread environmental degradation everywhere and the new pattern of global migration has replaced the old one. A global system of nation-states has emerged with regional and global governance structure while still uneven contemporary globalization is dominated by the western world mainly the United States and Europe. the distribution of power and wealth no longer follows a simples core and periphery model and reflects a new geographic distribution of power and privilege.

Contemporary globalisation is sharply differents from its previous forms due to widespread circulation of images, symbols, people, goods and services enabled by revolutionary advancement in information as communication and transport technologies. This increased interconnectedness has led to a situation where individuals, although rooted in their local communities, cannot remain isolated from the broader socio cultural and economic context in which they live.

Hopkins (2002a) described earlier times as period of archaic, proto and modern globalisation. He refers to the late twentieth century as an era of postcolonial globalization, noting a shift in power away from advance Western Nations, due to the rise of Supernational organisations and regional integration. This includes organisational bodies like World Bank and regional associations like EU as well as transnational identities such as diasporas, for eg. Indian and chinese communities. Moreover, Culture spreads globally beyond National borders through the internet, transnational popular culture, global media and processes like intercultural blending and hybridisation.

Hopkins(2002a) argues that decolonisation involves shifting away from Western dominance to a more prominent place for post colonial States, agents and culture. Post- war period witnessed a significant rise in the global economic influence of major Asian countries like Japan China and India, often by initially implementing policies outside the global economy. China continues to grow and develop at a speed, the implications of within onomically, environmently, culturally, politically and militarly are yet to be realised.

Scholte is one of those thinkers who argues that full scale globalisation emerged not primaries in modern era but after 1960s. In the first edition of his book(2000) he refers this period (1960s) as an era of full scale globalisation. By the second edition (2005), he refers to it as contemporary accelerated globalisation, a term that suggest spreading up of existing processes rather than the beginning of a new era. According to Scholte, it was in 1960s that various aspects such as communications, markets, productions, finance, organisations, environmental issues and global awareness became interconnected globally, primarily due to the advancement in electronic communications.

The integration of telecommunication, computing and internet has enabled the immediate movement of informations whether through direct communication method like messaging or the transfer of money and documents as well as through media such as web content. globalisation has historically been linked to various developments such as imperialism, industrialisation, capitalism and conclusion of cold war. in this content information and communication technology is regarded as the most crucial recent development which has shaped the globalisation decisively.

References:

1. Singh, Vikas, 2017. Unpublished research article.
2. Robertson, R. 1983. Interpreting globality in world realities and international studies today, 7-19.

3. Levitt, T. 1983. ‘The Globalization of markets I Harvard Business review.
4. Giddens, Anthony, 1996. The consequences of modernity, Polity Press, London.
5. Scholte, Jan Aart. 2005. Globalization a critical introduction. Palgrave macmillan, London.
6. Robertson, R. 1980. ‘Globality and modernity’ in theory, culture and society, 186.
7. Waters, Malcolm. 2001. Globalization. Routledge, London.
8. Held, David and mcGrew, Anthony 1999. The Global transformation reader. Polity press, London.
9. Anthony, G. Hopkins. 2002. Globalization in world history. Pimlico. 2002.